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Article #1: Cuba history

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The recorded history of Cuba began on 28 Cuban politics, whose government
October 1492, when Christopher Columbus tolerated their activities in exchange
sighted the island during his first for bribes and kickbacks.
voyage of discovery and claimed it for In 1956 a party of rebels, including
Spain. (This is still not certain and is Fidel Castro, landed in a boat from
an unresolved topic.)The island had been Mexico and tried to start an armed
inhabited by Amerindian peoples known as resistance movement in the Sierra
the Taíno and Ciboney whose ancestors Maestra. (Castro had gone to Mexico after
had come from South America several being released from prison, where he was
centuries before. The Taíno were farmers serving a sentence for his part in a 1953
and the Ciboney (also written Siboney rebel attack on the Moncada Barracks in
neo-Taino nations) were both farmers and Santiago de Cuba.) Batista’s forces
hunter-gatherers; some have suggested killed most of the rebels, but enough
that copper trade was significant and survived to maintain a low-level
mainland artifacts have been found in insurgency in the mountains. In response,
proximal Taino cultures. Batista made the mistake of launching a
The coast of Cuba was fully mapped by campaign of repression against the
Sebastián de Ocampo in 1511, and in that opposition, which only served to increase
year the first Spanish settlement was support for the insurgency.
founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar Through 1957 and 1958, opposition to
at Baracoa. Other towns, including Havana Batista grew, among the middle class and
(founded in 1515), soon followed. The the students, in the Catholic Church and
Spanish, as they did throughout the in the rural areas. The United States
Americas, oppressed and enslaved the government imposed an arms embargo on the
approximately 100,000 indigenous people Cuban government on March 14, 1958. By
that resisted conversion to Christianity late 1958, the rebels had succeeded in
on the island. Within a century they had breaking out of the Sierra Maestra and
all but disappeared as a distinct nation launched a general insurrection, joined
as a result of the combined effects of by hundreds of students and others
European introduced disease, forced labor fleeing Batista’s crackdown on dissent
and genocide, though aspects of the in the cities. When the rebels captured
region's aboriginal heritage has survived Santa Clara, east of Havana, Batista
in part via the rise of a significant decided the struggle was futile and fled
Mestizo population.[7][8] With the country to exile in Portugal and
destruction of aboriginal society, the later Spain. Castro’s rebel forces
settlers began to exploit abducted entered the capital on January 1, 1959.
African slaves, with more resistance to Cuba following revolution
the diseases from the old world, and who Fidel Castro became Prime Minister of
soon made up a significant proportion of Cuba in February 1959, and has held
the inhabitants. effective power in the country until
Colonial Cuba temporarily handing it over to his
Cuba was a Spanish possession for 388 brother for medical reasons in July 2006.
years, ruled by a governor in Havana, During 1959, Castro’s government
with an economy based on plantation carried out measures such as land reform,
agriculture and the export of sugar, the nationalization of public utilities,
coffee and tobacco to Europe and later to and the suppression of the widespread
North America. It was seized by the corruption that had developed under
British in 1762, but restored to Spain Batista, including closing down the
the following year. The Spanish gambling industry and evicting the many
population was boosted by settlers Florida-based American mobsters operating
leaving Haiti when that territory was on the island.
ceded to France. As in other parts of the Castro flew to Washington, DC, but was
Spanish Empire, a small land-owning elite not met by President Eisenhower, who
of Spanish-descended settlers held social decided to attend a golf tournament
and economic power, supported by a rather than meet with Castro.[3] Summary
population of plebian creoles, mixed-race executions of suspected Batista
small farmers, laborers and collaborators, coupled with the seizure
African-descended slaves. of Cuban-owned businesses and the rapid
In the 1820s, when the other parts of demise of the independent press,
Spain’s empire in Latin America nominally attributed to the powerful
rebelled and formed independent states, pro-revolution printing unions, raised
Cuba remained loyal, although there was questions about the nature of the new
some agitation for independence. This was government. Attitudes towards the Cuban
partly because the prosperity of the revolution in the United States were
Cuban settlers depended on their export changing rapidly. The nationalization of
trade to Europe, partly through fears of U.S.-owned companies (to an estimated
a slave rebellion (as had happened in value of US$1 billion[citation needed])
Haiti) if the Spanish withdrew and partly aroused immediate hostility within the
because the Cubans feared the rising Eisenhower administration. Cuban exiles
power of the United States more than they formed a burgeoning expatriate community
disliked Spanish colonial rule. in Miami. Many were angry at the
Cuba’s proximity to the U.S. has been a revolutionary government due to its
powerful influence on its history. seizure of their property in Cuba and the
Throughout the 19th century, Southern deaths of friends and relatives and they
politicians in the U.S. plotted the soon formed a powerful political lobbying
island’s annexation as a means of group in the United States. The United
strengthening the pro-slavery forces in States government became increasingly
the U.S., and there was usually a party hostile towards Cuba throughout 1959.
in Cuba which supported such a policy. In This, in turn, may have influenced
1848, a pro-annexationist rebellion was Castro's movement away from the liberal
defeated and there were several attempts elements of his revolutionary movement
by annexationist forces to invade the and increase the power of hardline
island from Florida. There were also Marxist figures in the government,
regular proposals in the U.S. to buy Cuba notably Che Guevara.
from Spain. During the summer of 1848, In October 1959, Castro openly declared
President James Knox Polk quietly himself to be friendly towards Communism,
authorized his ambassador to Spain, though he did not yet claim to be a
Romulus Mitchell Saunders, to negotiate Communist himself, and the liberal and
the purchase of Cuba and offer Spain up other anti-Communist elements of the
to $100 million, an astonishing sum of government were purged, with many who had
money at the time for one territory. initially supported the revolution
Spain, however, refused to consider fleeing the country to join the growing
ceding one of its last possessions in the exile community in Miami. In March 1960,
Americas. the first aid agreements were signed with
After the American Civil War apparently the Soviet Union. In the context of the
ended the threat of pro-slavery Cold War, the U.S. saw the establishment
annexationism, agitation for Cuban of a Soviet base of influence in the
independence from Spain revived, leading Americas as a threat and plans were
to a rebellion in 1868. This resulted in approved to remove Castro from power (see
a prolonged conflict known as the Ten The Cuban Project). In late 1960, a trade
Years' War between pro-independence embargo was imposed, which strengthened
forces and the Spanish, allied with their Castro's ties with the Soviet Union. At
local supporters. There was much sympathy the same time, the administration
in the U.S. for the independence cause, authorized plans for an invasion of Cuba
and some unofficial aid was sent, but the by Florida-based exiles, taking advantage
U.S. declined to intervene militarily. In of anti-Castro uprisings which were
1878, the Peace of Zanjon ended the repressed (see some details and
conflict, with Spain promising greater references in War Against the Bandits and
autonomy to Cuba. Bay of Pigs Invasion). The result was the
The island was exhausted after this long disastrous Bay of Pigs Invasion of April
conflict and pro-independence agitation 1961. President John Kennedy withdrew
temporarily died down. There was also a promised US air support for the invading
prevalent fear that if the Spanish force at the last minute and the populist
withdrew or if there was further civil anti-Castro uprising failed to
strife, the increasingly expansionist materialize. Kennedy refused direct
U.S. would step in and annex the island. American military intervention and the
Partly in response to U.S. pressure, invasion force was routed. This prompted
slavery was abolished in 1886, although Castro to declare Cuba a socialist
the African-descended minority remained republic, and himself a Marxist-Leninist
socially and economically oppressed, in May of 1961.
despite formal civic equality granted in Marxist-Leninist Cuba
1893. During this period, rural poverty One immediate strategic result of the
in Spain led to a substantial Spanish Cuban-Soviet alliance was the decision to
emigration to Cuba — among those place Soviet intermediate range ballistic
arriving were the parents of Fidel missiles in Cuba, which precipitated the
Castro. Cuban missile crisis of 1962, during
During the 1890s, pro-independence which U.S. President John F. Kennedy
agitation revived, fueled by resentment threatened the Soviet Union with nuclear
of the restrictions imposed on Cuban war unless the missiles were withdrawn.
trade by Spain and hostility to Spain’s Castro urged the Soviets to take an
increasingly oppressive and incompetent aggressive stance. Eventually the Soviets
administration of Cuba. In April 1895, backed down. In the aftermath of this,
rebellion broke out led by the poet José there was a resumption of contacts
Martí and Tomás Estrada Palma who between the U.S. and Castro, resulting in
proclaimed Cuba an independent republic the release of the anti-Castro fighters
— Martí was killed shortly thereafter captured at the Bay of Pigs in exchange
and has become Cuba’s undisputed for a package of aid. But during 1963,
national hero. The Spanish retaliated relations deteriorated again as Castro
with a campaign of suppression, herding moved Cuba towards a fully-fledged
the rural population into what were Communist system modeled on the Soviet
described by international observers as Union. The U.S. imposed a complete
"fortified towns". Estimates that between diplomatic and commercial embargo on
200,000 and 400,000 Cubans died from Cuba. At this time U.S. influence in
emaciation and disease during this Latin America was strong enough to make
period. These numbers were verified by the embargo very effective and Cuba was
both the Red Cross and the U.S. Senator, forced to direct virtually all its trade
and former War Secretary, Redfield to the Soviet Union and its allies.
Proctor. U.S. and European protests In 1965, Castro merged his revolutionary
against Spanish conduct on the island organizations with the Communist Party,
followed.[9] of which he became First Secretary, with
In 1897, fearing U.S. intervention, Spain Blas Roca as Second Secretary — later
moved to a more conciliatory policy, to be succeeded by Raúl Castro, who as
promising home rule with an elected Defense Minister and Fidel’s closest
legislature. The rebels rejected this confidant became and has remained the
offer and the war for independence second most powerful figure in the
continued. Shortly afterwards, on 15 government. Raúl Castro’s position was
February 1898, the U.S. battleship Maine strengthened by the departure of Che
was mysteriously blown up in Havana Guevara to launch unsuccessful attempts
harbor, killing 266 men. Forces in the at insurrectionary movements in Congo,
U.S. favoring intervention in Cuba seized and then Bolivia, where he was killed in
on this incident to accuse Spain of 1967. Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado,
blowing up the ship (although Spain had President of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, was
no motive for doing so and there was no a figurehead of little importance. Castro
evidence of Spanish culpability). Swept introduced a new constitution in 1976
along on a wave of nationalist sentiment, under which he became President himself,
the U.S. Congress passed a resolution while remaining chairman of the Council
calling for intervention and President of Ministers.
William McKinley was quick to comply. During the 1970s, Castro moved onto the
The result was the Spanish-American War, world stage as a leading spokesperson for
in which U.S. forces landed in Cuba in Third World “anti-imperialist”
June 1898 and quickly overcame Spanish governments. On a more concrete level, he
resistance. In August a peace treaty was provided invaluable military assistance
signed under which Spain agreed to to pro-Soviet forces in Angola, Ethiopia,
withdraw from Cuba. Some advocates in the Yemen and other African and Middle
U.S. supported Cuban independence, while Eastern trouble spots. Cuban forces were
others argued for outright annexation. As decisive in helping the MPLA forces win
a compromise, the McKinley administration the Angolan Civil War in 1975. Although
placed Cuba under a 20-year U.S. treatie. the bills for these expeditionary forces
The Cuban independence movement bitterly were paid by the Soviets, they placed a
opposed this arrangement, but unlike the considerable strain on Cuba’s economy
Philippines, where events had followed a and manpower resources. Cuba was also
similar course, there was no outbreak of hampered by its continuing dependency on
armed resistance. sugar exports. The Soviets were forced to
Independence provide further economic assistance by
Theodore Roosevelt, who had fought in the buying the entire Cuban sugar crop, even
Spanish-American War and had some though the Soviet Union grew enough sugar
sympathies with the independence beet to meet its own needs. In exchange
movement, succeeded McKinley as President the Soviets had to supply Cuba with all
of the United States in 1901 and its fuel, since it could not import oil
abandoned the 20-year treatie proposal. from any other source.
Instead, the Republic of Cuba gained Cuba’s economic dependence on the
formal independence on 20 May 1902, with Soviet Union was deepened by Castro’s
the independence leader Tomás Estrada determination to build his vision of a
Palma becoming the country’s first socialist society in Cuba. This entailed
president. Under the new Cuban the provision of free health care and
constitution, however, the U.S. retained education for the entire population.
the right to intervene in Cuban affairs Through the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviets
and to supervise its finances and foreign were prepared to subsidise all this in
relations. Under the Platt Amendment, exchange for the strategic asset of an
Cuba also agreed to lease to the U.S. the ally under the noses of the United States
naval base at Guantánamo Bay. and the undoubted propaganda value of
Independent Cuba soon ran into Castro’s considerable prestige in the
difficulties as a result of factional developing world.
disputes and corruption among the small By the 1970s, the ability of the U.S. to
educated elite and the failure of the keep Cuba isolated was declining. Cuba
government to deal with the deep social had been expelled from the Organization
problems left behind by the Spanish. In of American States in 1962 and the OAS
1906, following disputed elections to had cooperated with the U.S. trade
choose Estrada Palma’s successor, an boycott for the next decade, but, in
armed revolt broke out and the U.S. 1975, the OAS lifted all sanctions
exercised its right of intervention. The against Cuba and both Mexico and Canada
country was placed under U.S. occupation defied the U.S. by developing closer
and a U.S. governor took charge for three relations with Cuba. Both countries said
years. In 1908 self-government was that they hoped to foster liberalization
restored when José Miguel Gómez was in Cuba by allowing trade, cultural and
elected President, but the U.S. retained diplomatic contacts to resume — in this
its supervision of Cuban affairs. Despite they were disappointed, since there was
frequent outbreaks of disorder, however, no appreciable easing of repression
constitutional government was maintained against domestic opposition. Castro did
until 1925, when Gerardo Machado y stop openly supporting insurrectionary
Morales, having been elected President, movements against Latin American
suspended the constitution. governments, although pro-Castro groups
Machado was a Cuban nationalist and his continued to fight the military
regime had considerable local support dictatorships which then controlled most
despite its violent suppression of Latin American countries.
critics. During his tenure, Cubans gained The Cuban exile community in the U.S.
greater control over their own economy grew in size, wealth and power and
and some important national development politicized elements effectively opposed
projects were undertaken. His hold on liberalization of U.S. policy towards
power was weakened by the Great Cuba. However, the efforts of the exiles
Depression, which drove down the price of to foment an anti-Castro movement inside
Cuba’s agricultural exports and caused Cuba, let alone a revolution there, met
widespread poverty. In August 1933, limited success. On Sunday, April 6,
elements of the Cuban army staged a coup 1980, 7,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian
which deposed Machado and installed embassy in Havana seeking political
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes (whose father asylum. On Monday, April 7, Fidel Castro
was instrumental in initiating the Ten granted permission for the emigration of
Years War of independence) as President. Cubans seeking refuge in the Peruvian
In September, however, a second coup led embassy.[12] On April 16 500 Cuban
by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista overthrew citizens left the Peruvian Embassy for
Céspedes leading to the formation of the Costa Rica. On April 21 many of those
first Ramón Grau San Martín government. Cubans started arriving in Miami via
This government lasted just 100 days, but private boats and were halted by the
engineered radical liberal changes in State Department on April 23. The boat
Cuban society and a rejection of the lift continued, however, since Castro
Platt amendment. allowed anyone who desired to leave the
In 1934, Batista and the army, who were country to do so through the port of
the real center of power in Cuba, Mariel and this emigration became known
replaced Grau with Carlos Mendieta y as the Mariel boatlift. In all, over
Montefur. In 1940, Batista decided to run 125,000 Cubans emigrated to the United
for President himself. The leader of the States before the flow of vessels ended
constitutional liberals Ramón Grau San on June 15.
Martín refused to support him, so he Post-Cold War Cuba
turned instead to the Communist Party of The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991
Cuba, which had grown in size and dealt Cuba a giant economic blow. It led
influence during the 1930s. to another unregulated exodus of asylum
With the support of the seekers to the United States in 1994, but
Communist-controlled labor unions, was eventually slowed to a trickle of a
Batista was elected President and his few thousand a year by the U.S.-Cuban
administration carried out major social accords. It again increased in 2004-06
reforms and introduced a new progressive although at a far slower rate than
constitution. Several members of the before. Castro’s popularity was
Communist Party held office under his severely tested by the aftermath of the
administration. Batista's administration Soviet collapse, which led to a cut off
formally took Cuba into World War II as a in aid, the loss of a guaranteed export
U.S. ally, declaring war on Japan on Dec market for Cuban sugar and the loss of a
9, 1941, then on Germany/Italy on Dec 11, source of cheap imported oil. It also
1941; Cuba, however, did not caused, as in all Communist countries, a
significantly participate militarily in crisis in confidence for those who
World War II hostilities. At the end of believed that the Soviet Union was
his term in 1944, in accordance with the successfully “building socialism” and
constitution, Batista stood down and providing a model that other countries
Ramón Grau was elected to succeed him. should follow. In Cuba, however, these
Grau initiated increased government events were not sufficient to persuade
spending on health, education and Cuban Communists that they should
housing. But Grau’s liberals were voluntarily give up power.
bitter enemies of the Communists and By the later 1990s the situation in the
Batista opposed most of Grau’s program. country had stabilized. By then Cuba had
In 1948, Grau was succeeded by Carlos more or less normal economic relations
Prío Socarrás, who had been Grau’s with most Latin American countries and
minister of labor and was particularly had improved relations with the European
hated by the Communists. Prío was a less Union, which began providing aid and
principled liberal than Grau and, under loans to the island. China also emerged
his administration, corruption increased. as a new source of aid and support, even
This was partly a result of the postwar though Cuba had sided with the Soviets
revival of U.S. wealth and the consequent during the Sino-Soviet split of the
influx of gambling money into Havana, 1960s. Cuba also found new allies in
which became a center of mafia President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and
operations. Nevertheless Prío carried President Evo Morales of Bolivia, major
out major reforms such as founding a oil and gas exporters.
National Bank and stabilizing the Cuban Temporary transfer of duties
currency. The influx of North American On July 31 2006, Fidel Castro delegated
money fueled a boom which did much to his duties as President of the Council of
raise living standards, although the gap state, President of the Council of
between rich and poor became wider and Ministers, First Secretary of the Cuban
more obvious. Communist Party and the post of commander
From Batista to Castro in chief of the armed forces to his
The 1952 election was a three-way race. brother and First Vice President, Raúl
Roberto Agramonte of the Ortodoxos party Castro. This transfer of duties has been
led in all the polls, followed by Dr. described as temporary while Fidel Castro
Aurelio Hevia of the Auténtico party, recovers from surgery undergone after
and running a distant third was Batista, suffering from an "acute intestinal
who was seeking a return to office. When crisis with sustained bleeding". Fidel
it became apparent that Batista had Castro was too ill to attend the
little chance of winning, he staged a nationwide commemoration of the 50th
coup on 10 March 1952 and held power with anniversary of the Granma boat landing on
the backing of a nationalist section of December 2, 2006, which fuelled
the army as a “provisional president” speculations that Castro had stomach
for the next two years. In 1954, under cancer, though Spanish doctor Dr. García
pressure from the U.S., he agreed to Sabrido stated that his illness was a
elections. The Partido Auténtico put digestive problem and not terminal, after
forward ex-President Grau as their an examination of the subject on
candidate, but he withdrew amid Christmas Day.
allegations that Batista was rigging the On January 31, 2007, footage of Castro
elections in advance. Batista could then meeting with Venezuelan president Hugo
claim to be an elected President. His Chávez was broadcast, where, according
regime was marked by severe corruption to international media reports, Castro
and poverty. Batista's police force was "appeared frail but stronger than three
well-known for their harsh tactics and months ago", and the Cuban leader made a
violence against the population. Fidel lengthy surprise appearance by phone on
Castro directed failed resistance action Chávez's radio talk show Aló Presidente
at the Moncada Barracks, in Santiago de the following month. Though Castro
Cuba, and on the smaller Carlos Manuel de loyalists in the Cuban government have
Cespedes Barracks and on the feast of maintained that he will stand in the 2008
Saint Ann July 26, 1953. elections to the Cuban National Assembly,
Many Florida-based American mafiosi speculation has continued as to whether
established themselves in Cuba under he will ever return to power.
Batista's rule, notably prominent mob A BBC reporter is among at least three
boss Santo Trafficante, Jr. Their international correspondents asked to
operations included legitimate hotels and leave At least three foreign
casinos as well as all manners of illicit correspondents based in Havana have been
businesses. The American mobsters became told they must leave the country because
influential supporters of Batista in of their 'negative' reporting.






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